Oceania

Oceania[edit]

Australia & New Zealand[edit]

Main article: Australian Qualifications Framework

The Australian and New Zealand academic degrees are

• diplomas (1–2 years),
• advanced diplomas (1–2 years),
• bachelors degrees (3 years),
• bachelor's degrees with honours (bachelors + 1 year),
• master's degrees (bachelors + 1–2 years),
• postgraduate diplomas (1–2 years),
• graduate diplomas (1–2 years) and
• doctorates (Bachelor with Honours or Masters + 3–4 years).

In Australia, most degrees are issued ungraded, with bachelors degrees with honours being the exception. In New Zealand, both Masters and Bachelors with Honours are awarded graded. (e.g. - A Master of Science with First Class Honours) The bachelor's degree is the standard university qualification. In both Australia and New Zealand, unlike some other countries, honours degrees require an additional year of research and study on top of a bachelor's degree, and are undertaken by invitation only. Masters degrees may be by coursework or research. Doctorates are by research only (e.g. the PhD) or by some combination of coursework and research (e.g. the DBA, EdD). Some extended Master's degrees in medicine, veterinary science, and law may carry a "Doctor of" title in alignment with American usage, but are not doctorates. Nevertheless, professionals in some of these fields use the title "doctor" in spite of possessing only Bachelors or Masters degrees. Some bachelors degrees (e.g. Bachelors of Engineering or Bachelor of Medicine/Bachelor of Surgery) may take longer than three years to complete, and double bachelors degrees (i.e. completing two bachelors degrees simultaneously in four to five years) are common.

Quebec

Quebec[edit]

In the province of Quebec, the grand majority of students attend CEGEP prior to entering university. Upon completion of a two-year pre-university program, such as Sciences de la nature or Sciences humaines, or a three-year technical/career program, such as Soins infirmiers or Techniques de génie mécanique, graduates obtain a Diplôme d'études collégiales (DEC), which grants access to university-level studies. Although the previously mentioned CEGEP programs are typical, they are not offered in every institution in the province. Moreover, while a few other pre-university programs with various concentrations exist, many other technical/career programs are available depending on the CEGEP of choice. For example, Dawson College in Montreal has nearly sixty different programs leading to a DEC. Special programs, such as physical rehabilitation therapy, are offered in some CEGEPs as well. These programs are particularly interesting because they allow students to enter professional university programs, such as physiotherapy (which consists of an integrated Bachelor of Science in Physiotherapy and Master of Physical Therapy), without having to meet the usual grade and course pre-requisites required from students holding a pre-university science DEC. A similar option is offered for CEGEP nursing graduates as they can pursue their studies in university to obtain a Bachelor of Nursing in two years (rather than the usual three or four years, depending on whether the student has completed a CEGEP diploma in Quebec). Additionally, Whereas aspiring medical students are usually required to complete an undergraduate degree before applying to medical schools, Quebec CEGEP graduates have the option to enter:

• a "medical preparatory" year at McGill University and Université de Montréal and then pursue medical studies for the four following years or
• simply directly into the undergraduate medical education program at Université Laval (4 to 5 years in duration) orUniversité de Sherbrooke (4 years in duration).

Mexico[edit]

Education in Mexico follows a three-degree system similar to that of Canada and the US. After high school, students progress to university, where they study for a licenciatura, then a maestría, then a doctorado.

The pre-university academic level is the bachillerato (also called preparatoria), similar to high school. Students typically leave preparatoria at the age of 18 for university, at which point they choose to specialize in a specific academic area.

Once in university, students begin the carrera, the study of a precise academic branch like economics, business administration, sciences, law, engineering, or medicine. Students will be in university for 8-10 semesters of full-time study, which typically takes 4–5 years. Upon graduation, students receive a licenciatura in their chosen subject area, which is equivalent to an American Bachelor's degree. They can also get the degree of "ingenieria" or "medico" that refers to an engineer or MD respectively. After receiving the licenciatura, students may take extra courses calleddiplomados. These courses last 4–12 months and are a means to further study without continuing to the next degree level. Most students stay at this level, but some choose to continue to the maestría, equivalent to the Master's degree. Study at the maestría level takes 2–3 years and mandates completion of a thesis. Post-graduate students in Mexico typically enter a master's program after a few years in the workforce and often continue working while studying.

Traditionally, students who have completed the maestria may continue on to the doctorado, or the doctorate. Doctoral study typically lasts 3–4 years. In last years this schemes has become flexible such that in some PhD programmes, students are accepted before, or not completing at all a Master course.

North America

North America[edit]

Canada and United States[edit]

In the United States and Canada, since the late 19th century, the threefold degree system of bachelor, master and doctor has been in place, but follows a slightly different pattern of study from the European equivalent.

In the United States and Canada, most standard academic programs are based on the four-year bachelor's degree, most often Bachelor of Arts (B.A.), or Bachelor of Science (B.S./B.Sc.), a one- or two-year master's degree (most often Master of Arts (M.A.), or Master of Science (M.S./M.Sc.); either of these programs might be as long as three years in length), and a further two to five years of coursework and research, culminating in "comprehensive" examinations in one or more fields, plus perhaps some teaching experience, and then the writing of a dissertation for the doctorate, most often Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), or other types such as Doctor of Education (Ed.D.), Doctor of Psychology (Psy.D.), Doctor of Theology, (Th.D.), for a total of ten or more years from starting the bachelor's degree (which is usually begun around age 18) to the awarding of the doctorate. This timetable is only approximate, however, as students in accelerated programs can sometimes earn a bachelor's degree in three years or, on the other hand, a particular dissertation project might take four or more years to complete. In addition, a graduate may wait an indeterminate time between degrees before candidacy in the next level, or even an additional degree at a level already completed. Therefore, there is no time-limit on the accumulation of academic degrees.

Some schools, mostly junior colleges and community colleges and some four-year schools, offer an associate degreefor two full years of study, often in pre-professional areas. These may stand alone, or sometimes be used as credit toward completion of the four-year bachelor's degree.

In Canada and the United States, there is also another class of degrees called "First Professional degree". These degree programs are designed for professional practice in various fields other than academic scholarship. Most professional degree programs require a prior bachelor's degree for admission, and so represent at least about five total years of study and as many as seven or eight. Some fields such as fine art, architecture, or divinity call their first professional degree a "master's degree" (e.g., M.Arch., M.B.A.) because most of these degrees require at least the completion of a bachelor's degree. There is currently some debate in the architectural community to rename the degree to a doctorate in the manner that was done for the law degree decades ago, however, this would also require increasing the length of their education.^{[citation needed]}

In the United States and Canada, many colleges and universities offer also an "honors bachelor's degree". The term "Honours" is an academic distinction, which indicates that students must achieve their bachelor's degree with a sufficiently high overall grade point average; in addition, some programs may require more education than non-honours programs. The honours degrees are sometimes designated with the abbreviation in brackets of '(Hon(s))'. It should not be confused with the Canadian consecutive bachelor's degree "with Honours", Latin "Baccalaureatus Cum Honore", abbr. e.g. 'BA hon.' de jure without brackets and with a dot. It is a "postgraduate" degree which is considered to be the equivalent of corresponding maîtrise degrees under the French influenced system e.g. in Québec. Going back in history, in Canada a three-year bachelor´s degree (also known e.g. in Québec as grade de bachelier) was also called a pass degree or general degree. A student who first achieve a general bachelor's degree with a sufficiently high overall average may be admitted to a "postgraduate" Baccalaureatus Cum Honrore degree in the same field; it requires a minimum of one years but may also take longer; it typically does not exceed two years. Students are required to undertake a long high quality research empirical thesis (Honours Seminar Thesis) combined with a selection of courses from the relevant field of studies. The consecutive degree is essential if students ultimate goal is to study towards a two- or three-year very high quality research masters´ degree qualification. A student holding a Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree also may choose to complete a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) program without the requirement to first complete a Master's degree. Over the years, in some Canadian universities certain Baccalaureatus Cum Honore programs have been changed to correspondig master´s degrees.

In 21 US jurisdictions, religious institutions can be authorized to grant religious-exempt (rel. exmpt., rel. expt. etc.) degrees without accreditation or government oversight.^[63] Such degrees are used primarily to attain church-related employment.^[64]

In Canada, professional degrees in medicine (the Doctor of Medicine (M.D.)), law (the Juris Doctor (J.D.)), andpharmacy (the Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm.D.)) are considered to be undergraduate (first cycle) degrees^{[65][66][67][68][69]} whereas M.D., J.D., or D.O. are first professional doctorates (third cycle degrees) in the United States, whereas the Ph.D. is the highest degree offered in the United States and is a fourth cycle degree.^[70]

Scotland

Scotland[edit]

The standard first degree for students studying arts or humanities in Scotland is either a Bachelor of Arts or a Master of Arts (the latter traditionally awarded by the Ancient Universities of Scotland for a first degree in an arts/humanities subject). The standard undergraduate degree for natural and social science subjects is the Bachelor of Science.^[62]

Students can work towards a first degree at either ordinary or honours level. A general or ordinary degree (BA/MA or BSc) takes three years to complete; an honours degree (BA/MA Hons or BSc Hons) takes four years. The ordinary degree need not be in a specific subject, but can involve study across a range of subjects within (and sometimes beyond) the relevant faculty, in which case it may also be called a general degree; if a third year or junior honours subject is included, the ordinary degree in that named discipline is awarded. The honours degree involves two years of study at a sub-honours level in which a range of subjects within the relevant faculty are studied, and then two years of study at honours level which is specialised in a single field (for example classics, history, chemistry, biology, etc.).

This also reflects the broader scope of the final years of Scottish secondary education, where traditionally fiveHighers are studied, compared to (typically) three English or Welsh A-Levels. The Higher is a one-year qualification, as opposed to the two years of A-Levels, which accounts for Scottish honours degrees being a year longer than those in England. Advanced Highers add an optional final year of secondary education, bringing students up to the level of their A-Level counterparts - students with strong A-Levels or Advanced Highers may be offered entry directly into the second year at Scottish universities.

Honours for MA or Bachelors degrees are classified into three classes:

• First class honours
• Second class honours, divided into:
  • Division one (2:1) [Upper Second Class Honours]
  • Division two (2:2) [Lower Second Class Honours]
• Third class honours

Students who complete all the requirements for an honours degree, but do not receive sufficient merit to be awarded third-class honours may be awarded a Special Degree (ordinary degree - bachelors level SCQF Level 9).

In most respects, the criteria for awarding qualifications at honours level and above are the same as in the rest of the UK (see above under England, Wales and Northern Ireland). Postgraduate qualifications are not designated Master of Arts as in the rest of the UK, as this is an undergraduate degree. Postgraduate degrees in arts and humanities subjects are usually designated Master of Letters (MLitt) or, in natural and social sciences, Master of Science (MSc). Non-doctoral postgraduate research degrees are usually designated Master of Philosophy (MPhil) or Master of Research (MRes). The postgraduate teaching qualification is the Postgraduate Diploma in Education (PGDE).

Postgraduate qualifications are classified into four classes:

• Distinction
• Credit
• Merit
• Pass

Accreditation System

Accreditation System

University taught study programmes accreditation is granted through the ANECA, a government dependent quality assurance and accreditation provider for the Spanish Higher Education System and ensures that the data held in theRUCT, a national registry for universities and qualifications, is correct and up to date. All study programmes must be accredited by ANECA prior to their inclusion in the RUCT. The RUCT records all officially approved Universities and their Bachelor's Degrees, Master's Degrees and PhDs, and each and every one of the officially approved and accredited study programmes and universities are assigned a specific number Code (Código) by the RUCT. The same study programme may acquire different codes as it progresses through various stages of official approval by local government and central government.

Prospective students should check the RUCT Code awarded to the study programme of their interest at every stage of their enquiries concerning degrees in Spain.

ANECA makes recommendations regarding procedures, staffing levels, quality of teaching, resources available to students, and continuity or loss of accreditation and the ANECA Registry records all events in the life of an officially approved and accredited study programme or a university. The ANECA Registry Search Facility may be the simplest and safest way to verify the status of all officially approved and accredited study programmes in Spain.

It is also possible to track qualifications by using the search facility that several Autonomous Communities own accreditation agencies offer. These agencies work within the ANECA framework, and generally show more detailed information about the study programmes available in each territory (i.e.: Catalonia, Madrid, etc.)

3. Qualifications framework for Higher Education.

The qualifications framework for higher education MECES is the reference framework adopted in Spain in order to structure degree levels.

Not all universities offer degrees named exactly the same, even if they have similar academic and professional effects. Each university may present proposals for the study programme considered to meet professional and academic demand. The proposal will consist of a report linking the study programme being considered and the proposed qualification to be awarded. This report will be assessed by ANECA and sent for the Consejo de Universidades Españolas upon approval. If the Consejo agrees with ANECA’s approval, it will be included in the RUCT and ANECA registries. 4. Spanish qualifications and their professional effects.

All Bachelor's and Master’s Degrees accredited by ANECA enjoy full academic and professional effects in accordance with new and previous laws. Professional practice law in Spain is currently under revision.

Spain

Spain[edit]

Spain's higher-education legal framework includes: Official and accredited education, and Non-official education.

1.1 Official and accredited education.

In Spain, accreditation of official university study programmes is regulated by law and monitored by governmental agencies responsible for verifying their quality and suitability for official approval and accreditation.

Official professional study programmes lead to degree qualifications (Títulos) with full academic and professional effects, and the degrees awarded in accordance with the latest higher-education system are:

1. Bachelor’s Degree (Grado) - 240 ECTS Credits in 4 years.

2. Master’s Degree (Master Universitario) - 60 to 120 ECTS Credits in 1–2 years.

3. Doctoral Degree PhD (Doctorado) - in 3–4 years.

Accredited Bachelor's Degrees and Master’s Degrees qualifications will always be described as "Grado" and "Master Universitario". These qualifications comply with the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) framework. Officially approved and accredited university study programmes must implement this framework by law in order to attain and retain accreditation in Spain.

Spanish Official University Education Legal Framework 02

1.2 Non-official education.

Not all EHEA compliant study programmes in Spain are officially approved and/or accredited by government agencies. Some universities offer proprietary study programmes as an alternative to accredited study programmes for a variety of reasons: attending the continuing education market for individual self-advancement and also providing higher education to individuals that have failed to acquire Bachelor’s Degree qualifications. The main reason for offering this alternative studies, though, is the heavy burocratic process that needs to be accomplished to receive the approval of specific titles, in particular when it refers to new studies or studies about matters that do not fit with the official studies. For historical reasons, the academic system has been very much under the control of the State, and private universities are still regarded with as a threat to the State system.

These programmes fall within the category of "Non officially approved and accredited" or "Estudios no oficiales" and they have no academic or professional effects. This means that they do not entitle the bearer to claim to have any specific academic or professional qualifications, as far as the Spanish authorities are concerned. However, there may be private agreements to recognize the titles.

Spanish Official University Education Legal Framework 01

Universities offering non-official study programmes are legally bound to clearly differentiate between officially approved and non-officially approved qualifications when naming their offer of non-official qualifications. Non-accredited Master's Degrees will be described as "Master" on its own, without the term "Universitario".

Certain non-officially approved and accredited study programmes may acquire a well deserved reputation. However, neither Professional Association, Government Agencies, Judiciary Authorities, nor Universities -other than the study programme provider- are obliged to recognize non-official qualifications in any way.

Norway

Norway[edit]

Prior to 2003, there were around 50 different degrees and corresponding education programs within the Norwegian higher education system. In 2003, a reform was instituted to replace this older system with an "international system."

For example, many degrees had titles that included the Latin term candidatus/candidata. The second part of the title usually consisted of a Latin word corresponding to the profession or training. These degrees were all retired in 2003.

The reform of higher education in Norway, Kvalitetsreformen ("The Quality Reform"), was passed in the Norwegian Parliament, the Storting, in 2001 and carried out during the 2003/2004 academic year. It introduced standard periods of study and the titles master and bachelor (baccalaureus).

The system differentiates between a free master's degree and a master's degree in technology. The latter corresponds to the former sivilingeniør degree (not to be confused with a degree in civil engineering, which is but one of many degrees linked to the title sivilingeniør, which is still in use for new graduates who can chose to also use the old title). All pre-2001 doctoral degree titles were replaced with the title "Philosophical Doctor degree", writtenphilosophiæ doctor (instead of the traditional doctor philosophiæ). The title dr. philos. is a substantially higher degree than the PhD, and is reserved for those who qualify for such a degree without participating in an organized doctoral degree program.

Poland[edit]

See also: Bologna_process § Poland

In Poland the system is similar to the German one.

• licencjat title - given by a university; the equivalent of Bachelor of Arts degree or Bachelor of Science degree (depending on academic major); granted after at least 3 years of study.
• inżynier (inż.) title - Engineer's degree given by a technical university; granted after at least 3,5 to 4 years of study.
• magister (mgr) or magister inżynier (mgr inż.) title - the equivalent of an Master of Arts or Master of Sciencedegree, granted after 5–6 years of study, or 1.5–2 years of additional study by holders of a bachelor degree with classification of Honours Degree.
• doktor (dr) degree - the equivalent of Doctor of Philosophy.
• doktor habilitowany (dr hab.) degree - Polish Habilitation degree, requires approval by an external ministerial body.
• profesor (prof.) degree – the highest title, officially conferred by the President of Poland.

Academic title bearing

Academic title bearing[edit]

After obtaining a doctorate, Dutch doctors may bear either the title dr. (lower case) before, or the letter D behind their name, but not both simultaneously.^[39] There is no specific notation of the discipline in which the doctorate is obtained.

Stacking of the titles as seen in countries like for example Germany (Prof. Dr. Dr. Dr. Gruber) is highly uncommon in the Netherlands and not well received culturally. Those who have multiple doctor titles may, but in practice seldom use dr.mult. before their name.^[39] The honoris cause doctors may use dr.h.c. before their name.^[39] Combining different Dutch titles, especially in different disciplines, is allowed however (e.g. mr. dr. Jansen, dr. mr. Jansen, dr. ir. Jansen, mr. ir. drs. Jansen, mr. ir. Jansen). The use of the combination ir. ing. is frequent, indicating one holds aHBO, vocational (or professional) engineering degree together with an academic engineering degree.^[40] What is not allowed is, after obtaining a doctorate, using dr. drs. Jansen; dr. Jansen should be used instead.

A combination of a Dutch title with an international title is not allowed, except for some limited number of international professional titles.^[40] Thus, one should choose either one's classical Dutch titles, or use the shortcut provided by the law behind one's name (since September 1, 2002 it is the other way around: those who hold Dutch degrees as MSc, LLM or MA may optionally use the old-style shortcuts before their names).^[40][41] Hence, formal use of the Anglo-Saxon PhD behind ones name is not legal, as it is not a Dutch degree, but often seen on for example English publications for clarity towards international readers; the law provides the option of using the shortcut D behind one's name instead of dr. before one's name.

"Doctors" (dr.) can proceed to teach at universities as "universitair docent" (UD – assistant professor). With time, experience, and/ or achievement, this can evolve to a position as "universitair hoofddocent" (UHD – associate professor). Officially an UHD still works under the supervision of a "hoogleraar", the head of the department and commonly a professor. However, this is not a given; it is also possible that a department is headed by a "plain" doctor, based on knowledge, achievement, and expertise. The position of "hoogleraar" is the highest possible scientific position at a university, and equivalent to the US "full" professor. The Dutch professor's title, noted as prof. Jansen or professor Jansen, is connected to ones employment. This means that, should the professor leave theuniversity, he or she also loses the privilege to use the title of professor. Exception here are retired professors, who can still note the title in front of their name, or use the title emeritus professor (em. prof.). People who switch to a non-university job lose their professor title, and are only allowed to use the "dr." abbreviation.

Contrary to some other European countries like for example Germany, Dutch academic titles are used rarely outside academia, hold no value in every day life, and are for example not listed on official documentation (e.g. passport, drivers license, (governmental) communication). Dutch academic titles however are legally protected and can only be used by graduates from Dutch institutions of higher education. Illegal use is considered a misdemeanor and subject to legal prosecution.^[42][43] Holders of foreign degrees therefore need special permission before being able to use a recognised Dutch title, but they are free to use their own foreign title (untranslated).^{[44][45][46][47]} In practice, the Public Department does not prosecute the illegal use of a protected title (in the Netherlands applies the principle of opportunity, so some known crimes are not prosecuted).^[48]

Pre-Bologna phases

Pre-Bologna phases[edit]

Before the introduction of the bachelor-master structure, almost all academic studies in the Netherlands had the same length of four years and had two phases:

• The "propedeutische fase" (1–2 years): After finishing this phase a student can follow another two years' study, which grants equivalents to the Anglo-Saxon BSc (Bachelor of Science), BA (Bachelor of Arts) or LLB (Bachelor of Laws).
• The "doctorale fase" (3–4 years): Completing the first phase successfully gives the student access to the second phase. Again, failure to finish within the time given will lead to discontinuation. This phase is concluded with the "doctoraal examen" (doctoral exam). This is not similar to any type of doctoral exam that would grant the student with any type of PhD title. Successful completion however does grant the student the Dutch degree of "drs." "doctorandus", ir. ("ingenieur" – engineer) or "mr." ("Meester in de rechten" - master of law). Nowadays these Dutch titles have been largely replaced by the Anglo Saxon titles MSc (Master of Science), MA (Master of Arts), and LLM (Master of Laws), depending on the area of study.

For medical students the "doctorandus" degree is not equivalent to the European Anglo Saxon postgraduate research degree in medicine of MD (Medical Doctor). Besides the title doctorandus, the graduates of the Curius curriculum may also bear the title arts (physician). The doctorandus in medicine title is granted after four years (nominal time) of the Curius curriculum, while the title physician is granted after six years (nominal time) of that curriculum. The Dutch physician title is equal to a MSc degree according to the Bologna process, and can be compared with the MBBS, MB, MB BCh BAO, BMBS, MBBChir, or MBChBa in the UK degree system, and the North American, but not the UK MD degree, which is a research degree. One-on-one equivalence or interchangeability of the Dutch medical title and MD is often suggested. However, officially the MD title is not known, nor legal to use in the Netherlands. The correct notation for a Dutch physician who completed his or her medical studies, but did not pursue a doctor (PhD-like) study is "drs." (e.g. drs. Jansen, arts) and not "dr." in medicine, as often used incorrectly. However, like in the United Kingdom, physicians holding these degrees are referred to as 'Doctor' by courtesy. In the Netherlands, there is the informal title dokter for physicians, but not doctor (dr.), unless they also earn such degree by completing a PhD curriculum. Furthermore, the "doctorandus" degree does not give a medical student the right to treat patients; for this a minimum of two years additional study (internships) is required. After obtaining a Medical Board registration, Dutch physicians must work an additional two to six years in a field of expertise to become a registered medical specialist. Dutch surgeons commonly are only granted access to surgeon training and positions after obtaining a doctorate (PhD) successfully. Since a couple of years, the six-year (nominal time) old Curius curriculum (which offered the titles doctorandus and physician) has been replaced with a three-year (nominal time) Bachelor Curius+ followed by a three-year (nominal time) Master Curius+. Those who had already begun their old-style Curius curriculum before that will still have to complete it as a six-year study (nominal time).

A doctorandus in law uses the title "meester" (master, abbreviated as mr. Jansen) instead of drs., and some studies like for example technique and agriculture grant the title "ingenieur" (engineer, noted as ir. Jansen) instead of drs. These titles as equivalent to a LLM (the title mr.) and to a MSc (the title ir.), and if got before September 1, 2002 from a recognized Dutch university, may be rendered as M (from Master) behind one's name, instead of using the typical Dutch shortcuts before one's name. Since September 1, 2002, Dutch universities offer specific BSc, BA or LLB studies followed by MSc, MA or LLM studies, thus integrating into and merging with the international scientific community, offering lectures, other classes, seminars, or complete curricula in English instead of Dutch. According to their field of study, MSc graduates may use either ir. or drs. before their names, MA graduates may use drs. before their name and LLM graduates may use mr. before their names, but only if they received such degrees from recognized Dutch universities.

Not uncommonly, the Dutch "drs." abbreviation can cause much confusion in other countries, since it is perceived as a person who has a PhD in multiple disciplines. In the Netherlands, the degree MPhil is not legally recognised.

After successfully obtaining a "drs.", "ir.", or "mr." degree, a student has the opportunity to follow a promotion study (informally called PhD) to eventually obtain a doctorate, and subsequently the title "doctor". Promotion studies are structured ideally according to a preset time schedule of 4 to 6 years, during which the student has to be mentored by at least one professor. The promotion study has to be concluded with at least a scientific thesis, which has to be defended to "a gathering of his/her peers", in practice the Board of the Faculty with guest professors from other faculties and/or universities added. More and more common, and in some disciplines even mandatory, is that the student writes and submits scientific publications to peer-reviewed journals, which eventually need to be accepted for publication. The number of publications is often debated and varies considerably between the various disciplines. However, in all disciplines the student is obligated to produce and publish a dissertation or thesis in book form.